References

  1. The INSIGHT START Study Group. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:795-807 
  2. The TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group. A trial of early antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med 2015;373:808-22 
  3. Lee FJ, Amin J, Carr A. Efficacy of initial antiretroviral therapy for HIV-1 infection in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 114 studies with up to 144 weeks' follow-up. PLoS One 2014;9:e97482 
  4. Rockstroh JK, DeJesus E, Lennox JL, et al. Durable efficacy and safety of raltegravir versus efavirenz when combined with tenofovir/emtricitabine in treatment-naive HIV-1-infected patients: final 5-year results from STARTMRK. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013;63:77-85 
  5. Walmsley SL, Antela A, Clumeck N, et al. Dolutegravir plus abacavir-lamivudine for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1807-18 
  6. Chesney MA. Factors affecting adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2000;30 Suppl 2:S171-6 
  7. Ho DD. Time to hit HIV, early and hard. N Engl J Med 1995;333:450-1 
  8. Hammer SM, Katzenstein DA, Hughes MD, et al. A trial comparing nucleoside monotherapy with combination therapy in HIV-infected adults with CD4 cell counts from 200 to 500 per cubic millimeter. AIDS Clinical Trials Group Study 175 Study Team. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1081-90 
  9. Delta Coordinating Committee. Delta: a randomised double- blind controlled trial comparing combinations of zidovudine plus didanosine or zalcitabine with zidovudine alone in HIV- infected individuals. Lancet 1996;348:283-91 
  10. Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, et al. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 1998;338:853-60 
  11. Chun TW, Engel D, Berrey MM, et al. Early establishment of a pool of latently infected, resting CD4(+) T cells during primary HIV-1 infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:8869-73 
  12. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  13. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  14. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1 infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Available at: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/html/1/adult-and-adolescent-arv-guidelines/0 (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  15. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  16. The INSIGHT START Study Group. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:795-807 
  17. The TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group. A trial of early antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med 2015;373:808-22 
  18. Rodger A, Bruun T, Cambiano V, et al. HIV transmission risk through condomless sex if HIV+ partner on suppressive ART: PARTNER Study. 21st Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI), 3-6 March 2014, Boston USA. Oral late breaker abstract 153LB. Available at: http://www.croiwebcasts.org/console/player/22072 (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  19. Rodger A, Bruun T, Cambiano V, et al. HIV transmission risk through condomless sex if HIV+ partner on suppressive ART: PARTNER Study. 21st Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI), 3-6 March 2014, Boston USA. Oral late breaker abstract 153LB. Available at: http://www.croiwebcasts.org/console/player/22072 (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  20. Grulich AE, Bavinton1 BR, Fengyi Jin F, et al. HIV transmission in male serodiscordant couples in Australia, Thailand and Brazil. 22nd Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI), 23-26 February 2015, Seattle USA. Late breaker poster 1019 LB. Available at: http://www.croiconference.org/sessions/hiv-transmission-male-serodiscordant-couples-australia-thailand-and-brazil (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  21. Mellors JW, Muñoz A, Giorgi JV, et al. Plasma viral load and CD4+ lymphocytes as prognostic markers of HIV-1 infection. Ann Intern Med 1997;126:946-54 
  22. Egger M, May M, Chêne G, et al. Prognosis of HIV-1 infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: a collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet 2002;360:119-29 
  23. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 2011;365:493-505 
  24. The INSIGHT START Study Group. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:795-807 
  25. The TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group. A trial of early antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med 2015;373:808-22 
  26. The INSIGHT START Study Group. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2015;373:795-807 
  27. The TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group. A trial of early antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med 2015;373:808-22 
  28. Coombs RW, Reichelderfer PS, Landay AL. Recent observations on HIV type-1 infection in the genital tract of men and women. AIDS 2003;17:455-80 
  29. Quinn TC, Wawer MJ, Sewankambo N, et al. Viral load and heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Rakai Project Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000;342:921-9 
  30. Tovanabutra S, Robison V, Wongtrakul J, et al. Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002;29:275-83. 
  31. Kayitenkore K, Bekan B, Rufagari J, et al. The impact of ART on HIV transmission among HIV serodiscordant couples. Paper presented at: XVI International AIDS Conference; 2009; Toronto: Canada 
  32. Reynolds S, Makumbi F, Kagaayi J, et al. ART reduced the rate of sexual transmission of HIV among HIV-discordant couples in rural Rakai, Uganda. Paper presented at: 16th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections (CROI); 2009; Montreal, Canada 
  33. Tanser F, Barnighausen T, Grapsa E, et al. High coverage of ART associated with decline in risk of HIV acquisition in rural KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Science 2013;339:966-71 
  34. Cohen MS, Chen YQ, McCauley M, et al. Prevention of HIV-1 infection with early antiretroviral therapy. N Engl J Med 2011;365:493-505 
  35. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  36. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  37. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  38. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  39. {The SPARTAC Trial Investigators; Fidler S, Porter K, Ewings F, et al. Short-course antiretroviral therapy in primary HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2013;368:207-7 
  40. Hoen B, Dumon B, Harzic M, et al. Highly active antiretroviral treatment initiated early in the course of symptomatic primary HIV-1 infection: results of the ANRS 053 trial. J Infect Dis 1999;180:1342-6 
  41. Smith DE, Walker BD, Cooper DA, et al. Is antiretroviral treatment of primary HIV infection clinically justified on the basis of current evidence? AIDS 2004;18:709-18 
  42. CASCADE Collaboration. Effective therapy has altered the spectrum of cause-specific mortality following HIV seroconversion. AIDS 2006;20:741-9 
  43. Strategies for Management of Antiretroviral Therapy (SMART) Study Group. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006:355:2283-96 
  44. Emery S, Neuhaus JA, Phillips AN, et al. Major clinical outcomes in antiretroviral therapy (ART)-naive participants and in those not receiving ART at baseline in the SMART study. J Infect Dis 2008;197:1133-44 
  45. Graham CS, Baden LR, Yu E, et al. Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the course of hepatitis C virus infection: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2001;33:562-9 
  46. Sulkowski MS, Thomas DL. Hepatitis C in the HIV-infected person. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:197-207 
  47. Carrat F, Bani-Sadr F, Pol S, et al. Pegylated interferon alfa-2b vs standard interferon alfa-2b, plus ribavirin, for chronic hepatitis C in HIV-infected patients: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004;292:2839–48 
  48. Jacobson IM, McHutchison JG, Dusheiko G, et al. Telaprevir for previously untreated chronic hepatitis C virus infection. N Engl J Med 2011;364:2405-16 
  49. Poordad F, McCone J, Jr., Bacon BR, et al. Boceprevir for untreated chronic HCV genotype 1 infection. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1195-206 
  50. Jacobson IM, Dore GJ, Foster GR, et al. Simeprevir with pegylated interferon alfa 2a plus ribavirin in treatment-naive patients with chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infection (QUEST-1): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2014:384:403-13 
  51. Shafran SD. HIV coinfected have similar SVR rates as HCV monoinfected with DAAs: it's time to end segregation and integrate HIV patients into HCV trials. Clin Infect Dis 2015;61:1127-34 
  52. Sulkowski MS, Thomas DL, Chaisson RE, et al. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus and the role of hepatitis C or B virus infection. JAMA 2000;283:74-80 
  53. Martínez E, Blanco JL, Arnaiz JA, et al. Hepatotoxicity in HIV-1-infected patients receiving nevirapine-containing antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001;15:1261-8 
  54. Martínez E, Blanco JL, Arnaiz JA, et al. Hepatotoxicity in HIV-1-infected patients receiving nevirapine-containing antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2001;15:1261-8 
  55. Sulkowski MS, Thomas DL, Chaisson RE, et al. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus and the role of hepatitis C or B virus infection. JAMA 2000;283:74-80 
  56. Sulkowski MS, Thomas DL, Chaisson RE, et al. Hepatotoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus and the role of hepatitis C or B virus infection. JAMA 2000;283:74-80 
  57. Vento S, Garofano T, Renzini C, et al. Enhancement of hepatitis C virus replication and liver damage in HIV-co-infected patients on antiretroviral combination therapy. AIDS 1998;12:116-7 
  58. Soriano V, Puoti M, Bonacini M, et al. Care of patients with chronic hepatitis B and HIV co-infection : recommendations from an HIV-HBV international panel. AIDS 2005; 9:221-40 
  59. Bottechia M, Garcia-Samaniego J, Soriano V. The implications of antiviral drugs with activity against hepatitis B virus and HIV. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2007;20:621-8 
  60. Peters MG, Andersen J, Lynch P, et al. Randomised controlled study of tenofovir and adefovir in chronic hepatitis B infection and HIV infection: ACTG A5127. Hepatology 2006;44:1110-6 
  61. Matthews GV, Bartholomeusz A, Locarnini S, et al. Characteristics of drug resistant HBV in an international collaborative study of HIV-HBV-infected individuals on extended lamivudine therapy. AIDS 2006;20:863-70 
  62. McMahon MA, Jilek BL, Brennan TP, et al. The HBV drug entecavir - Effects on HIV-1 replication and resistance. N Engl J Med 2007;256:2614-21 
  63. Fried MW, Piratvisuth T, Lau GK, et al. HBeAg and hepatitis B DNA as outcome predictors during therapy with pegylated interferon α-2a for HBeAg- positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2008;47:428-34 
  64. Fried MW, Piratvisuth T, Lau GK, et al. HBeAg and hepatitis B DNA as outcome predictors during therapy with pegylated interferon α-2a for HBeAg- positive chronic hepatitis B. Hepatology 2008;47:428-34 
  65. Peters MG, Andersen J, Lynch P, et al. Randomised controlled study of tenofovir and adefovir in chronic hepatitis B infection and HIV infection: ACTG A5127. Hepatology 2006;44:1110-6 
  66. McMahon MA, Jilek BL, Brennan TP, et al. The HBV drug entecavir - Effects on HIV-1 replication and resistance. N Engl J Med 2007;256:2614-21 
  67. Safadi R, Xie Q, Chen Y, et al. Efficacy of switching to telbivudine in chronic hepatitis B patients treated previously with lamivudine. Liver Int 2011;31:667-75 
  68. Soriano V, Puoti M, Bonacini M, et al. Care of patients with chronic hepatitis B and HIV co-infection : recommendations from an HIV-HBV international panel. AIDS 2005; 9:221-40 
  69. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  70. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1 infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Available at: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines/html/1/adult-and-adolescent-arv-guidelines/0 (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  71. J Currier, D Averitt Bridge, D Hagins, et al. (GRACE Study Group). Sex-based outcomes of darunavir-ritonavir therapy: a single-group trial. Ann Intern Med 2010;153:349-57 
  72. Squires K et al. Elvitegravir (EVG) / cobicistat (COBI) / emtricitabine (FTC)/ tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) is superior to ritonavir (RTV) boosted atazanavir (ATV) plus FTC/TDF in treatment naïve women with HIV-1 infection (WAVES Study). Abstract MOLBPE08. 8th International AIDS Society Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention (IAS 2015), Vancouver, Canada. 18-22 July 2015 
  73. Moyle G. Hyperlactatemia and lactic acidosis during antiretroviral therapy: causes, management and possible etiologies. AIDS Rev 2001;3:150-6 
  74. Galli M, Veglia F, Angarano G, et al. Gender differences in antiretroviral drug-related adipose tissue alterations. Women are at higher risk than men and develop particular lipodystrophy patterns. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2003;34:58-61 
  75. Yin M, Dobkin J, Brudney K, et al. Bone mass and mineral metabolism in HIV+ postmenopausal women. Osteoporos Int 2005;16:1345-52 
  76. Ford N, Calmy A, Mofenson L. Safety of efavirenz in the first trimester of pregnancy: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS 2011;25:2301–4 
  77. Cohn SE, Park JG, Watts DH, et al. Depo-medroxyprogesterone in women on antiretroviral therapy: effective contraception and lack of clinically significant interactions. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2007;81:222-7 ↑
  78. Leticee N, Viard JP, Yamgnane A, et al. Contraceptive failure of etonogestrel implant in patients treated with antiretrovirals including efavirenz. Contraception 2012:85;425-7 
  79. Vogler MA, Patterson K, Kamemoto L, et al. Contraceptive efficacy of oral and transdermal hormones when co-administered with protease inhibitors in HIV-1-infected women: pharmacokinetic results of ACTG trial A5188. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010;55:473-82 
  80. Stuart GS, Moses A, Corbett A, et al. Combined oral contraceptives and antiretroviral PK/PD in Malawian women: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a combined oral contraceptive and a generic combined formulation antiretroviral in Malawi. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2011;58:e40-43 
  81. Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, et al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:144 e141-8 
  82. Lehtovirta P, Paavonen J, Heikinheimo O. Experience with the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system among HIV-infected women. Contraception 2007;75:37-9 
  83. Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Last updated 5 March 2015. Available at: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  84. Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Last updated 5 March 2015. Available at: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  85. Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. Last updated 5 March 2015. Available at: https://aidsinfo.nih.gov/contentfiles/lvguidelines/pediatricguidelines.pdf (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  86. Dore GJ, McDonald A, Li Y, et al; National HIV Surveillance Committee. Marked improvement in survival following AIDS dementia complex in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2003;17:1539-45 
  87. Sacktor N, McDermott MP, Marder K, et al. HIV-associated cognitive impairment before and after the advent of combination therapy. J Neurovirol 2002;8:136-42 
  88. Cysique LA, Maruff B Brew BJ. Antiretroviral therapy in HIV infection: are neurologically active drugs important? Arch Neurol 2004;61:1699-704 
  89. Di Stefano M, Sabri F, Leitner T, et al. Reverse transcriptase sequence of paired isolates of cerebrospinal fluid and blood from patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 during zidovudine treatment. J Clin Microbiol 1995;33:352-5 
  90. Kirby Institute. HIV, viral hepatitis and sexually transmitted infections in Australia. Annual Surveillance Report 2014. Sydney: Kirby Institute, UNSW; 2014 
  91. Iversen J, Maher L. Australian NSP Survey National Data Report 2009-13. Sydney: Kirby Institute, UNSW; May 2014 
  92. Kazatchkine M, Lert F. Antiretroviral HIV treatment and care for injecting drug users: An evidence-based overview. Intern J Drug Pol 2007;18:255-61 
  93. Vlahov D, Graham N, Hoover D, et al. Prognostic indicators for AIDS and infectious disease death in HIV-infected injection drug users: plasma viral load and CD4+ cell count. JAMA 1998;279:35-40 
  94. Lyles CM, Graham NM, Astemborski J, et al. Cell-associated infectious HIV-1 viral load as a predictor of clinical progression and survival among HIV-1 infected injection drug users and homosexual men. Eur J Epidemiol 1999;15:99-108 
  95. Wodak A, Hoy J. HIV infection and injecting drug use. In: Crowe S, Hoy J, Mills J (editors). Management of the HIV-Infected Patient. 2nd ed. London: Martin Dunitz Ltd; 2002:575-84 
  96. Celentano DD, Galai N, Sethi AK, et al. Time to initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected injection drug users. AIDS 2001;15:1707-15 
  97. Altice FL, Friedland GH, Cooney EL. Nevirapine induced opiate withdrawal among injection drug users with HIV infection receiving methadone. AIDS 1999;13:957-62
  98. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  99. Department of Health and Human Services.(DHHS). Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1-infected adults and adolescents. April 8 2015. Incorporating commentary to adapt the guidelines to the Australian setting. Available at: http://arv.ashm.org.au (last accessed 3 February 2016) 
  100. McCance-Katz EF, Sullivan LE, Nallani S. Drug interactions of clinical importance among the opioids, methadone and buprenorphine, and other frequently prescribed medications: a review. Am J Addict 2010;19:4-16 ↑
  101. Iversen J, Maher L. Australian NSP Survey National Data Report 2009-13. Sydney: Kirby Institute, UNSW; May 2014 
  102. Urbina A, Jones K. Crystal methamphetamine, its analogues, and HIV infection: medical and psychiatric aspects of a new epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:890-4 
  103. Hales G, Roth N, Smith D. Possible fatal interaction between protease inhibitors and methamphetamine. Antivir Ther 2000;5:19 
  104. Antoniou T, Tseng A. Interactions between recreational drugs and antiretroviral agents. Ann Pharmacother 2002;36:1598-613